Influence of Soaking Duration and Temperature on the Physicochemical and Functional Properties of a Tunisian Chickpea Cultivar

Sarra Sammoud; Ichrak Charfi; Mariem Bannour; Safa Barakati; Salwa Bornaz

doi:10.51745/najfnr.10.21.192-204

Influence of Soaking Duration and Temperature on the Physicochemical and Functional Properties of a Tunisian Chickpea Cultivar

PDF (Full Text)

Food Chemistry, Engineering, Processing and Packaging

DOI https://doi.org/10.51745/najfnr.10.21.192-204

Issue Vol. 10 No. 21 (2026): January - June, 2026

Submitted 2026-01-20

Accepted 2026-05-19

Published 2026-06-21

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.

Background: Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a widely consumed legume renowned for its high nutritional value. However, its utilization is constrained by the presence of antinutritional factors, such as phytates and tannins, which may compromise nutrient bioavailability. Thermal processing, particularly soaking conditions, has been reported as an effective approach for enhancing nutritional quality and reducing antinutritional compounds.

Aims: This study aimed to evaluate the effect of thermal parameters—specifically soaking time and temperature—on the nutritional and antinutritional quality of chickpeas, and to optimize these conditions utilizing a statistical experimental design.

Patients and Methods: A Central Composite Design (CCD) was implemented employing Design-Expert software to assess the combined effects of soaking temperature (20 °C, 40 °C, and 60 °C) and soaking time (6 h, 15 h, and 24 h). Chickpea samples were analyzed for physicochemical properties (dry matter, pH, and conductivity), nutritional components (crude protein and fiber contents), antinutritional factors (phytates and condensed tannins), and functional properties, including swelling and hydration capacities.

Results: Physicochemical parameters remained relatively stable across all thermal treatments. In contrast, soaking at 20 °C for 24 h resulted in increased protein and fiber contents, accompanied by a significant reduction in antinutritional factors, with decreases of 29.68% in phytates and 33.42% in condensed tannin content. Furthermore, functional properties, including swelling and hydration capacities were significantly improved under these optimized conditions.

Conclusions: Optimization of soaking time and temperature constitutes an effective strategy for enhancing the nutritional and functional properties of chickpeas while substantially reducing antinutritional factors. These findings underscore the potential of controlled thermal treatments to improve chickpea quality for food applications.

Keywords

Chickpea Thermal Treatment Soaking Parameters Nutritional Quality Antinutritional Factors

Sarra Sammoud

Laboratory of Innovation and Valorization for Sustainable Food Industry Higher School of Food Industries of Tunis, University of Carthage, 58 Avenue Alain Savary, 1003, Tunis, Tunisia
Ichrak Charfi

Bouebdelli University (BU) 30 Avenue Kheireddine Pacha, 1002, Tunis, Tunisia
Mariem Bannour

Bouebdelli University (BU), 30 Avenue Kheireddine Pacha, 1002, Tunis, Tunisia
Safa Barakati

Laboratoire des Substances Naturelles, Institut National de Recherche et d’Analyses Physico-chimiques (INRAP) BiotechPole Sidi Thabet, 2020. Institut National Agronomique de Tunis (INAT) 43 Av. Charles Nicolle, Tunis 1082, Tunisia
Salwa Bornaz

Laboratory of Innovation and Valorization for Sustainable Food Industry Higher School of Food Industries of Tunis, University of Carthage, 58 Avenue Alain Savary, 1003, Tunis, Tunisia

PDF (Full Text)

How to Cite

Sammoud, S., Charfi, I., Bannour, M., Barakati, S., & Bornaz, S. (2026). Influence of Soaking Duration and Temperature on the Physicochemical and Functional Properties of a Tunisian Chickpea Cultivar. The North African Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 10(21), 192-204. https://doi.org/10.51745/najfnr.10.21.192-204

More Citation Formats

Download Citation

Agume, A. S. N., Njintang, N. Y., & Mbofung, C. M. F. (2017). Effect of soaking and roasting on the physicochemical and pasting properties of soybean flour. Foods, 6(2), Article 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods6020012

Amri, M., Kharrat, M., & Ben Salah, H. (2016). La variété de pois chiche « REBHA ». Annales de l’INRAT – Spécial Innovations, 17–19. https://doi.org/10.12816/0028684

AOAC. (1995). Official methods of analysis (16th ed.). Association of Official Analytical Chemists. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19951414840

Aubert, G. (1978). Méthodes d'analyses du sol (2e éd.). C.N.D.P.

Bayram, M., Kaya, A., & Öner, M. D. (2004). Changes in properties of soaking water during production of soy-bulgur. Journal of Food Engineering, 61(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0260-8774(03)00094-3

Boukid, F. (2021). Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) protein as a prospective plant‐based ingredient: A review. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 56(11), 5435–5444. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.15046

Boye, J., Zare, F., & Pletch, A. (2010). Pulse proteins: Processing, characterization, functional properties and applications in food and feed. Food Research International, 43(2), 414–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2009.09.003

Bradford, M. M. (1976). A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Analytical Biochemistry, 72(1–2), 248–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2697(76)90527-3

Cid-Gallegos, M. S., Corzo-Ríos, L. J., Jiménez-Martínez, C., & Sánchez-Chino, X. M. (2022). Protease inhibitors from plants as therapeutic agents- a review. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-022-00949-4

Coffigniez, F., Briffaz, A., Mestres, C., Akissoé, L., Bohuon, P., & El Maâtaoui, M. (2019). Impact of soaking process on the microstructure of cowpea seeds in relation to solid losses and water absorption. Food Research International, 119, 268–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.10.069

Corzo-Ríos, L. J., Garduño-Siciliano, L., Sánchez-Chino, X. M., Martínez-Herrera, J., Cardador-Martínez, A., & Jiménez-Martínez, C. (2021). Effect of the consumption of amaranth seeds and their sprouts on alterations of lipids and glucose metabolism in mice. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 56(7), 3269–3277. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.15014

Corzo-Ríos, L. J., Jiménez-Martínez, C., Cid-Gallegos, M. S., Cardador-Martínez, A., Martínez-Herrera, J., & Sánchez-Chino, X. M. (2022). Chemical and non-nutritional modification of faba bean (Vicia faba) due to the effect of roasting and boiling. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 30, Article 100622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2022.100622

Corzo-Ríos, L. J., Sánchez-Chino, X. M., Cardador-Martínez, A., Martínez-Herrera, J., & Jiménez-Martínez, C. (2020). Effect of cooking on nutritional and non-nutritional compounds in two species of Phaseolus (P. vulgaris and P. coccineus) cultivated in Mexico. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 20, Article 100206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2020.100206

Das, G., Sharma, A., & Sarkar, P. K. (2022). Conventional and emerging processing techniques for the post-harvest reduction of antinutrients in edible legumes. Applied Food Research, 2(1), Article 100112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2022.100112

Day, L. (2013). Proteins from land plants – Potential resources for human nutrition and food security. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 32(1), 25–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2013.05.005

Dong, J.-L., Yang, M., Shen, R.-L., Zhai, Y.-F., Yu, X., & Wang, Z. (2019). Effects of thermal processing on the structural and functional properties of soluble dietary fiber from whole grain oats. Food Science and Technology International, 25(4), 282–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/1082013218817705

El-Adawy, T. A., Rahma, E. H., El-Bedawy, A. A., & Sobihah, T. Y. (2000). Effect of soaking process on nutritional quality and protein solubility of some legume seeds. Die Nahrung, 44(5), 339–343. https://doi.org/10.1002/1521-3803(20001001)44:5%3C339::aid-food339%3E3.0.co;2-t

Ellis, R., Morris, E. R., & Philpot, C. (1977). Quantitative determination of phytate in the presence of high inorganic phosphate. Analytical Biochemistry, 77(2), 536–539. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2697(77)90014-4

Johnny, S., Razavi, S. M. A., & Khodaei, D. (2015). Hydration kinetics and physical properties of split chickpea as affected by soaking temperature and time. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52(12), 8377–8382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-1893-1

Kaptso, K. G., Njintang, Y. N., Komnek, A. E., Hounhouigan, J., Scher, J. N., & Mbofung, C. M. F. (2008). Physical properties and rehydration kinetics of two varieties of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and bambara groundnuts (Voandzeia subterranea) seeds. Journal of Food Engineering, 86(1), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.09.014

Kaur, M., Sandhu, K. S., Arora, A., & Sharma, A. (2015). Gluten free biscuits prepared from buckwheat flour by incorporation of various gums: Physicochemical and sensory properties. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 62(1), 628–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.02.039

Kaur, R., & Prasad, K. (2023). Elucidation of temperature dependent hydration behaviour of chickpea seeds: Prerequisite for germination. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 50(102669), 102669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2023.102669

Khamassi, K., Chaabane, R., Khoufi, S., Kharrat, M., & Naceur, M. B. (2014). Evaluation agro-morphologique de quelques génotypes locaux de pois chiche d’hiver (Cicer arietinum L.) en Tunisie. Journal of New Sciences, 5. https://www.jnsciences.org/component/content/article.html?id=21

Khattab, R. Y., Arntfield, S. D., & Nyachoti, C. M. (2009). Nutritional quality of legume seeds as affected by some physical treatments, Part 1: Protein quality evaluation. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 42(6), 1107–1112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2009.02.008

Kheto, A., Chaudhari, A., Manikpuri, S., Sehrawat, R., Gul, K., Kumar, L., & Khan, K. A. (2024). Effect of ultrasonic-pretreatment on soaking kinetics, nutritional, anti-nutritional, and functional properties of guar seeds. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft Und Technologie Food Science and Technology, 213(117046), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2024.117046

Kjeldahl, J. (1883). A new method for the determination of nitrogen in organic matter. Zeitschrift für Analytische Chemie, 22(1), 366–382. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01338151

Kumar, Y., Basu, S., Goswami, D., Devi, M., Shivhare, U. S., & Vishwakarma, R. K. (2022). Anti‐nutritional compounds in pulses: Implications and alleviation methods. Legume Science, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/leg3.111

Kyriakopoulou, K., Keppler, J. K., & van der Goot, A. J. (2021). Functionality of ingredients and additives in plant-based meat analogues. Foods (Basel, Switzerland), 10(3), 600. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10030600

Lei, K., Sun, S., Zhong, K., Li, S., Hu, H., Sun, C., Zheng, Q., Tian, Z., Dai, T., & Sun, J. (2021). Seed soaking with melatonin promotes seed germination under chromium stress via enhancing reserve mobilization and antioxidant metabolism in wheat. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 220(112241), 112241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112241

Lestienne, I., Icard-Vernière, C., Mouquet, C., Picq, C., & Trèche, S. (2005). Effects of soaking whole cereal and legume seeds on iron, zinc and phytate contents. Food Chemistry, 89(3), 421–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.03.040

Lima, F. S. de, Kurozawa, L. E., & Ida, E. I. (2014). The effects of soybean soaking on grain properties and isoflavones loss. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 59(2, Part 2), 1274–1282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.04.032

Martín-Cabrejas, M. A. (2019). Chapter 1. Legumes: An overview. In Legumes: Nutritional quality, processing and potential health benefits (pp. 1–18). The Royal Society of Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1039/9781788015721-00001

Mukherjee, R., Chakraborty, R., & Dutta, A. (2018). Soaking of soybean meal: Evaluation of physicochemical properties and kinetic studies. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization, 12(4), 2734–2743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-018-9954-6

Pádua, M. D., Fontoura, P. S. G., & Mathias, A. L. (2004). Chemical composition of Ulvaria oxysperma (Kützing) bliding, Ulva lactuca (Linnaeus) and Ulva fascita (Delile). Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology, 47(1), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-89132004000100007

Plahar, W. A., Annan, N. T., & Nti, C. A. (1997). Cultivar and processing effects on the pasting characteristics, tannin content and protein quality and digestibility of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 51(4), 343–356. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007994612607

Ramadan, B. R., Sorour, M. A., & Kelany, M. A. (2012). Changes in total phenolics and DPPH scavenging activity during domestic processing in some cereal grains. Annals of Food Science and Technology, 13(2), 190–196. https://doi.org/10.21608/jfds.2012.81726

Rao, P. U., & Deosthale, Y. G. (1982). Tannin content of pulses: Varietal differences and effects of germination and cooking. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 33(10), 1013–1016. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740331012

Rehinan, Z., Rashid, M., & Shah, W. H. (2004). Insoluble dietary fibre components of food legumes as affected by soaking and cooking processes. Food Chemistry, 85(2), 245–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.07.005

Samtiya, M., Aluko, R. E., & Dhewa, T. (2020). Plant food anti-nutritional factors and their reduction strategies: An overview. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition, 2(1), Article 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-020-0020-5

Sayar, S., Turhan, M., & Gunasekaran, S. (2001). Analysis of chickpea soaking by simultaneous water transfer and water–starch reaction. Journal of Food Engineering, 50(2), 91–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(00)00196-5

Schofield, P., Mbugua, D. M., & Pell, A. N. (2001). Analysis of condensed tannins: A review. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 91(1-2), 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0377-8401(01)00228-0

Semba, R. D., Ramsing, R., Rahman, N., Kraemer, K., & Bloem, M. W. (2021). Legumes as a sustainable source of protein in human diets. Global Food Security, 28(100520), 100520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100520

Shafaei, S. M., Masoumi, A. A., & Roshan, H. (2016). Analysis of water absorption of bean and chickpea during soaking using Peleg model. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 15(2), 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2014.08.003

Thakur, P., Kumar, K., Ahmed, N., Chauhan, D., Eain Hyder Rizvi, Q. U., Jan, S., Singh, T. P., & Dhaliwal, H. S. (2021). Effect of soaking and germination treatments on nutritional, anti-nutritional, and bioactive properties of amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa L.), and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum L.). Current Research in Food Science, 4, 917–925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crfs.2021.11.019

Urga, K., & Gebretsa, M. (1993). The effect of soaking time and soaking solution on the nutritional quality of grass pea seeds. Ethiopian Journal of Health Development, 7(2), 79–83. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ejhd/article/view/216601

Vasishtha, H., & Srivastava, R. P. (2013). Effect of soaking and cooking on dietary fibre components of different type of chickpea genotypes. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 50(3), 579–584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-011-0366-4

Verma, D. K., Thakur, M., Singh, S., Tripathy, S., Sandhu, K. S., Kaur, M., & Srivastav, P. P. (2021). The emphasis of effect of cooking and processing methods on antinutritional phytochemical of legumes and their significance in human health. In Phytochemicals in Food and Health (pp. 3–47).

Wood, J. A., & Grusak, M. A. (2007). Nutritional value of chickpea. In S. S. Yadav, R. J. Redden, W. Chen, & B. Sharma (Eds.), Chickpea Breeding and Management (1st ed., pp. 101–142). CABI. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781845932138.005

Zia-Ul-Haq, M., Iqbal, S., Ahmad, S., Imran, M., Niaz, A., & Bhanger, M. I. (2007). Nutritional and compositional study of Desi chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivars grown in Punjab, Pakistan. Food Chemistry, 105(4), 1357–1363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.05.004

More

Influence of Soaking Duration and Temperature on the Physicochemical and Functional Properties of a Tunisian Chickpea Cultivar

Keywords

How to Cite

Similar Articles

Downloads 3

Views 26

Country (Top 10)

Make a Submission

Journal Issue

Keywords

Browse by Category

Information

Highly Accessed

Published by

Useful Links

Connect

Contact Us